Primitive Religion – Animism or Monotheism?

Was the first form of religion animism or monotheism? While many scholars today regard animism as the earliest expression of religious belief, some challenge this view.

Human beings are naturally inclined towards spirituality, so it is unsurprising that religion has always been a fundamental aspect of human existence. Today, the majority of the global population identifies, even if only nominally, with one of the two largest monotheistic religions: Christianity or Islam. In South Asia and the Far East, Hinduism, largely polytheistic, and Buddhism, often considered an ‘atheistic’ tradition, are the predominant religions in South Asia and the Far East.

When we look back at the ancient world, we see a very different religious landscape. Polytheism, in its many forms, was the prevailing belief system. The religions of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece were centred around complex pantheons of gods with human-like qualities. These religions were not, however, eternal. This prompts an important question: what are the origins of religion?

Evolutionary Schools of Religious History

Most historians of religion, particularly those aligned with the evolutionary theories of Edward B. Tylor and Herbert Spencer (the latter also known for his advocacy of social Darwinism), contend that early human societies practised prehistoric religions grounded in animism,¹ totemism,² shamanism,³ and ancestor worship. For simplicity’s sake, we will focus on animism. Some theories suggest an earlier stage, often called pre-animism, where nature itself was seen as magical but without distinct spirits. Over time, this primal belief system is thought to have evolved, passing through stages like classical polytheism and eventually leading to monotheism.⁴

Other approaches have also developed over time. The Marxist perspective emphasises the social role of religion, suggesting that it emerged primarily as a tool for societal control. Meanwhile, the more modern phenomenological school, led by thinkers such as Rudolf Otto and Mircea Eliade, examines how humans encounter and interpret what they perceive as sacred. Despite these differing views, the dominant narrative among historians of religion is that religious experiences progressed from ‘lower’ animistic beliefs to ‘higher’ monotheistic systems, just as humans are thought to have evolved from simpler to more complex forms.⁵

The Vienna School of Wilhelm Schmidt and Original Monotheism

Wilhelm Schmidt, the founder of the Vienna School, disputed the evolutionary perspective on religion. He contended that advocates of this view failed to provide sufficient evidence to substantiate the claim that all religions globally originated from ‘lower’ animistic forms.⁶ Before Schmidt, the Scottish scholar Andrew Lang had recognised that many early societies maintained myths with clear monotheistic traits. These myths often centred on a supreme God, described as the Creator of all things. Schmidt expanded on Lang’s findings, proposing that this early monotheistic belief arose from what he referred to as prae-revelation—an initial divine revelation to humanity.⁷

Unlike advocates of other schools, Schmidt supported his arguments with tangible evidence. In his book The Origin and Growth of Religion (1931), he cited numerous examples of indigenous tribes that venerated a Supreme Being. For example, the Kikuyu people of Kenya worship Ngai as their highest deity, while the Yoruba of modern-day Nigeria, Benin, and Togo revere Olorun as the creator and moral authority. Similarly, many Australian Aboriginal groups believe in Baiame, while the nomadic peoples of the Great Steppe honour Tengri as the sky god. Indigenous tribes in North America often refer to the ‘Great Spirit’, such as Wakan Tanka or Gitche Manitou. Even ancient Chinese traditions originally centred on a creator deity, Shangdi (or Tian, meaning ‘heaven’).⁸

While these communities held a belief in a single Creator God, they still integrated animistic traditions and gradually shifted towards henotheistic systems.⁹ Lang and Schmidt observed this pattern and concluded that humanity initially worshipped a single God. Over time, however, this monotheism was diluted as societies began to embrace beliefs in spirits (animism) or subordinate gods (henotheism). In more developed civilisations, such as those of ancient Egypt and Greece, the Creator God was largely eclipsed by other anthropomorphic deities.

The Bible on Monotheism and Polytheism

The findings of Lang and Schmidt closely reflect biblical teachings, which state that Adam and Eve initially worshipped a single Creator God, a belief later passed down to Noah. After the Flood, humanity,¹⁰ led by Nimrod, attempted to construct the Tower of Babel.¹¹ Although the Bible does not explicitly state this, it is possible that Nimrod rejected God entirely and shifted his focus toward nature, potentially laying the foundation for early animistic beliefs. As humanity dispersed from Babel, they may have carried with them both Noah’s monotheism and Nimrod’s animism, merging these ideas over time.

How, then, could intricate polytheistic systems such as those seen in ancient Egypt have developed? The Bible indicates that those who spread from Babel lived exceptionally long lives, often surpassing 400 years—Eber, for example, is said to have lived to be 464 years old.¹² In contrast, later generations had much shorter lifespans, typically under 250 years of age,¹³ with many passing away while their long-lived ancestors were still alive. This may have led younger generations to regard figures such as Shem, Arphaxad, Shelah, and Eber as deified or god-like. Over time, these revered ancestors could have been mythologised, forming the basis of polytheistic pantheons.¹⁴ Henotheistic systems in some early societies may have developed as a result of this process.

Polytheistic religions eventually gave way to monotheism, most notably through Christianity and Islam. In this way, much of the world can be seen as having reconnected with its monotheistic origins.

By the way, we recommend reading the articles:

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Footnotes

1. Animism – a view that all living beings in nature possess a soul.
2. Totemism – a belief that every person has a totem, or mythical ancestor, from the natural world, such as an animal or plant.
3. Shamanism – the belief in the existence of spirits with which a shaman can connect through practices inducing altered states of consciousness.
4. Bylica, P., Monoteizm pierwotny i praobjawienie – według Wilhelma Schmidta, Contra Gentiles. Available at: https://contragentiles.pl/glowne-dzialy/teizm-chrzescijanski/chrzescijanstwo-a-inne-religie/monoteizm-pierwotny-i-praobjawienie-wedlug-wilhelma-schmidta/
5. Corduan, W., In the Beginning God: A Fresh Look at the Case for Original Monotheism, B&H Publishing Group, Nashville, 2013, pp. 73–74.
6. Hanington, G., Wilhelm Schmidt and the Origin of Religion, “Creation”, 14(3), June 1992, pp. 20–21. Available at: https://answersingenesis.org/human-evolution/origins/wilhelm-schmidt-and-the-origin-of-religion/
7. Bylica, P., op. cit.
8. Corduan, W., op. cit.
9. Henotheism – a theistic view resembling polytheism, where, alongside other deities, one supreme Creator God holds a central role.
10. The Bible, New King James Version, 1982, Genesis 11:9.
11. The Bible, New King James Version, 1982, Genesis 10:8–12.
12. The Bible, New King James Version, 1982, Genesis 11:16–17.
13. The Bible, New King James Version, 1982, Genesis 11:18–25.
14. This concept, known as Euhemerism, maintains that mythical gods of antiquity were originally real people deified by later generations. This view was proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher Euhemerus (hence its name) and adopted by evolutionist Herbert Spencer, who applied it to ordinary individuals with lifespans comparable to or shorter than ours. In this context, it is applied to the long-lived biblical patriarchs between Noah and Abraham and the generations they represent.

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