It is commonly believed that most ancient religions, with the exceptions of Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism, adhered to pantheons of multiple gods. However, this perspective is overly reductive. In fact, each of these religions recognized a supreme deity—a singular being regarded as the originator of all things.
Religions are typically categorized based on the number of deities they venerate. The two primary categories are monotheism and polytheism. Monotheistic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, the Bahá’í Faith, and a few others, acknowledge the existence of a single, all-powerful deity. In contrast, polytheistic religions involve the worship of numerous gods, as exemplified by the ancient religious systems of the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Romans. Additional categorizations, such as henotheism or pantheism, also exist. Certain religions, such as Hinduism, present challenges to classification due to their internal diversity, while others, such as Buddhism, may not be theistic in nature and often integrate with local polytheistic beliefs.
Sky Deities
Scholars of religion generally contend that the earliest stage in the development of religious belief was animism, along with associated phenomena such as shamanism and totemism. However, Wilhelm Schmidt, the founder of the Viennese School of religious studies, offered a significant challenge to this view. Schmidt argued that the initial religious framework was not animism, but rather “primitive monotheism” (or primordial monotheism). According to his theory, early human societies first recognized a singular deity before gradually acknowledging the existence of additional gods. Schmidt substantiated this thesis with a wealth of ethnographic evidence.1
Mircea Eliade proposed that these deities evolved into what is known as deus otiosus—gods who are passive and indifferent to human affairs, leaving the management of earthly matters to other deities. These gods were typically sky deities, rulers of the heavens. Since the sky symbolizes transcendence, sacredness, and power—qualities beyond earthly and human reality—sky deities were regarded as the highest and most ancient.2 Thus, which deities are we specifically referring to?
Mesopotamia
The Sumerian civilization is widely regarded as the oldest in the world. Like other ancient cultures, the Sumerians developed a rich and complex pantheon of gods. The chief deity in this pantheon was Anu, the god of the sky and the head of the divine hierarchy. Interestingly, there are no known statues of Anu, suggesting that his cult may not have been as fully developed as those of other gods. Anu was believed to reside in a heavenly palace that remained untouched by the Deluge. According to Sumerian myth, he was conceived from the goddess Nammu (corresponding to Tiamat in Babylonian mythology), who personified the primordial ocean. Anu was considered the ruler of all and the source of royal power. Although Anu was not a creator god in the strictest sense—this role was attributed to Marduk—he was regarded as the ultimate force behind all creation.3
Indo-European Peoples
Today, Indo-European peoples are spread across Europe, Russia, Iran, and India, though they were once a single group. Linguists have reconstructed the name of the highest god of these peoples as Dyaus, based in part on references in the Rigveda, where the name Dyaus Pita appears. In ancient Indian religion, Dyaus Pita is a sky god, and the name itself means “shining father.” Another prominent sky deity in Indian mythology is Varuna, who is believed to rule the universe, possess infinite knowledge, and punish wrongdoing.4 Furthermore, the concept of Brahman in Hinduism represents the eternal, absolute reality.5
Interestingly, the name Dyaus Pita is etymologically connected to the Greek god Zeus and the Roman god Jupiter.6 However, in Greek mythology, a more primordial sky god than Zeus was Uranus, from whom Kronos and, subsequently, Zeus were born. Despite his significance in myth, the cult of Uranus never fully developed, and even the worship of Zeus appeared relatively limited compared to the prominence enjoyed by many other Greek deities.7
Another prominent supreme god in the Indo-European pantheon is Ahura Mazda, a key deity in the Iranian (Persian) tradition. Prior to the reforms introduced by Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda was regarded as one of many gods, though he occupied the highest position within the pantheon. Zoroaster, however, established Ahura Mazda as the sole deity, thereby transforming the religion into a largely monotheistic system.8
China and Steppe Peoples
The ancient Chinese also worshipped a supreme deity, known by two names: Shangdi and Tian, the latter of which translates simply as “heaven.” Shangdi was revered as the god of the heavens from the outset and was considered the sovereign of all that exists, residing in the remote and inaccessible regions above. He was also viewed as the source of all earthly authority, which is why Chinese emperors adopted the title “Sons of Heaven.” The privilege of offering sacrifices to Shangdi was reserved solely for the emperor, and the worship of Heaven eventually became institutionalized as a state cult under the Qin dynasty.9 A similar concept is found among the steppe societies, such as the Mongols, whose indigenous religion venerated Tengri, the sky god, often identified with the sky itself.10
Interestingly, the analysis of Chinese pictograms suggests that the ancient Chinese not only worshipped a single God but also had knowledge of many details from the biblical Book of Genesis, including the Garden of Eden and the worldwide Flood. This implies that ancient Chinese beliefs may have once aligned with events described in the Bible.
Various Cultures Around the World
Remnants of primordial monotheism can be observed among various indigenous groups across all continents. For instance, the Yoruba people of Africa worship Olorun, the sky god, who is considered the creator of the world. However, after the creation of the world, Olorun withdrew and entrusted the governance of earthly affairs to other deities known as orisa. Consequently, the worship of the orisa gods developed, while Olorun is invoked only during major disasters.11
In contrast, the Australian Aborigines venerate Baiame, a sky god believed to have created everything and who possesses omniscience. Other Aboriginal tribes worship a deity named Daramulu.12 Similarly, the Pawnee Indians, now residing in Oklahoma, revere a god called Tirawa, described as the “father of all things” and the creator of the universe.13 The Algonquins believe in Gitche Manitou, the Great Spirit.14
Summary
These are just a few examples among many, illustrating that belief in a supreme god, the creator of all things, was widespread across ancient cultures. Does this serve as proof that such a deity truly exists? An atheist might argue that primitive people were simply guided by superstition. However, Aristotle offers a different perspective. In his Metaphysics, the Greek philosopher asserted that if there is movement in nature, there must have been something that set it in motion. From this reasoning, he developed the concept of the Prime Mover. According to Aristotle, the Prime Mover is God—the Mind—a transcendent, immaterial substance responsible for creating and initiating all motion.15
In this way, Aristotle arrived at the concept of God through reason alone, without recourse to the mythical gods of Greek polytheism. Contemporary Christian theologians frequently identify Aristotle’s God with the God of the Bible. Similarly, they draw parallels between sky deities worshipped by various cultures worldwide, particularly in the context of missionary encounters. The widespread and cross-cultural belief in a supreme deity, even among the most primitive societies, provides substantial evidence for the existence of the Supreme God as depicted in the Bible.
By the way, we recommend reading the articles:
- The Potential Impact of Extraterrestrial Beings on Religious Systems
- Can a “Toxic” Frog Poison Itself?
- Speech – A Unique Human Ability
- Secrets of Ancient Civilizations – Part 1: Construction
- Secrets of Ancient Civilizations – Part 2: Science and Technology
- Secrets of Ancient Civilizations – Part 3: Origins
Footnotes
- Hanington, G., 1992. Wilhelm Schmidt and the Origin of Religion. Creation, 14(3), pp. 20-21. Available at: https://answersingenesis.org/human-evolution/origins/wilhelm-schmidt-and-the-origin-of-religion/.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Traktat o historii religii. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo OPUS, pp. 43-44.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., pp. 67-68.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., pp. 68-74.
- Brahman, 2024. Encyklopedia PWN. Available at: https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/brahman;3880262.html.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., pp. 68-69.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., pp. 76-80.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., pp. 74-76.
- Corduan, W., 2013. In the Beginning God: A Fresh Look at the Case for Original Monotheism. Nashville: B&H Publishing Group, pp. 289-294.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., p. 63.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., p. 51.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., pp. 46-47.
- Eliade, M., 1993. Op. cit., p. 50.
- Corduan, W., 2013. Op. cit., pp. 183-187.
- Aristotle, 2024. Metafizyka, Księga Lambda (XII). Available at: https://sady.up.krakow.pl/fil.arystoteles.metafizykaXII.html.
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